John Scoble
This document is about schisms in Christianity over two millennia. Its purpose is to follow major disagreements that led to schisms and to highlight the causes as recorded by historians and religious authorities. In addition, we hope to draw some lessons for the Catholic Church today. If these lessons remain unlearned, the mistakes of the past are likely to be repeated. In addition, we pose the question whether schisms at a macro level provide guidance for our personal relationships at an individual level.
At the outset, some limitations need to be acknowledged. Firstly, this short document cannot be written without glossing over many of the subtleties and less significant contributing factors to the splits. Secondly, historians and religious authorities have their own biases. History is often written (or edited) by the winners, more often than not, the rich and powerful. Thirdly, a vast array of factors contributes to schisms including doctrinal differences, power, geography, culture, linguistic differences, greed, ethnocentric worldviews, conservative or liberal leanings and so on. It is not possible in a short document to do justice to these. Finally, the authors of this document are not scholarly historians but merely interested individuals seeking to understand how Christianity came to be what it is today.
Controversies, heresies and dogma
From the very beginning, the disciples of Jesus tried to establish ways in which they could live in accordance with His teachings. It is demonstrated frequently in the Scriptures that even the 12 apostles did not fully understand the lessons he taught. The further away the disciples were from direct contact with Jesus or in years from his earthly ministry, the more controversies arose both within communities and between geographically diverse communities.
For example, St Luke records in Acts that in CE49, the Jerusalem assembly was held. It was decided that circumcision of Gentiles was unnecessary. Effectively, it was determined that it was not necessary to be a Jew or to follow the Jewish law to be a disciple of Jesus. It could be argued that this was when Christianity, until then considered a Jewish cult, established itself not merely a branch of Judaism, but perhaps rather a Jewish schism!
Over the next 50 to 100 years, the elders of the Christian communities tried to establish common understandings about teachings. Controversies emerged and the church began to label unorthodox views as heresies and to establish orthodox beliefs or dogma. By necessity, this created right thinking and wrong thinking, as well as in-groups and out-groups, typical of an immature, ethnocentric worldview.
One of the best examples would be the Arian controversy about the true nature of Jesus as son of God. In CE325, the First Council of Nicaea was held. It was the first of seven councils recognised as ecumenical by both the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches. The council declared Jesus was true God, Coeternal with the father. The first version of the Nicene creed was developed. The controversy continued and the creed was amended in CE381 at the Council of Constantinople.
First major schism – Oriental orthodox churches
In 431CE the Council of Ephesus was held. One of the major items was a discussion about whether Jesus was more divine or more human. It ended in disarray after conflict between the Alexandrian school lead by Cyril and the Constantinople/Antiochian school led by Nestorius. It was not until 451CE, at the Council of Chalcedon, that the teaching of Jesus’ one person in two natures, human and divine was formally adopted. The Oriental orthodox churches (Armenia, Egypt (Copts), Syria, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sudan and parts of Middle East and India) disagreed and separated from the rest of Christianity.
Second major schism – Eastern orthodox churches
This schism between Western and Eastern churches is attributed to events that occurred in 1054 CE. However, the schism had its roots in a number of disagreements that occurred over seven centuries.
In 330 CE the emperor Constantine moved the capital of the Empire from Rome to Byzantium (Constantinople). After Constantine’s death in 337CE, Rome was restored as a capital city for the western half of the Empire, while Constantinople remained the capital of the eastern half. The division followed the linguistic divide between the Greek speaking eastern half and the Latin speaking western half.
In 381CE the first council of Constantinople raised Constantinople to second position behind Rome but ahead of Alexandria and Antioch. No western bishops were present at the council; no legate of the Bishop of Rome was present. The western church only recognised the council as ecumenical 150 years later.
451CE at the Council of Chalcedon, the Eastern Orthodox claimed that Canon 28 of this council explicitly proclaimed the equality of the bishops of Rome and Constantinople and that it established the High Court of ecclesiastical appeal in Constantinople. Pope Leo rejected the canon as his delegates weren’t present for the vote. The seeds of the argument about the primacy of the Bishop of Rome were sown.
In 482CE, the Acadian schism occurred between Rome and Constantinople over the true nature of Jesus. Reunion was established after 37 years in 519CE.
In 692CE at the Quinisext Council, the East criticised the West for many Latin customs as non-orthodox. Pope Sergius I rejected the council’s decisions.
Between 589 and 794CE, the Western church at the councils of Toledo and Frankfurt introduced into the Nicene creed the Filioque clause adding “the Son” to “the Father in the procession of the Holy Spirit”. This offended the eastern church, which viewed it as tampering with an agreed doctrine. Subsequent papal support for the Western position raised the issue of papal authority and whether a Pope could override an ecumenical Council.
Between 863 and 879CE the Photian dispute occurred between Rome and Constantinople. Photios I of Constantinople argued that Constantinople, as the seat of the ruler of the Empire and therefore of the world, was the highest among the patriarchates and, like the Emperor, had the right to govern them. Three councils were held, two by Constantinople and one by Rome. Neither patriarch recognised the other’s council.
The primary causes of the 1054CE schism were disputes over conflicting claims of jurisdiction, in particular over papal authority. Pope Leo IX in 1014CE claimed he held authority over the four eastern patriarchs and over the insertion of the Filioque clause into the Nicene creed by the Western patriarch. The Eastern Orthodox church stated that the council of Chalcedon canon 28 explicitly proclaimed the equality of the bishops of Rome and Constantinople and that it established the highest court of ecclesiastical appeal in Constantinople. The Pope died three months before the Hagia Sophia incident in 1054CE now described.
Cerularius, patriarch of Constantinople, was critical of the western church over unleavened bread, the Filioque clause, papal authority, the period of Lent and clean-shaven clergy. Cardinal Humbert (Pope Leo IX legate) excommunicated Cerularius at Hagia Sophia, who in turn excommunicated Humbert. Language, geography and other cultural differences contributed to the split.
In 1204-1206CE during the fourth crusade, the crusaders sacked Constantinople. Many scholars believe this contributed more to the schism than the events of 1054.
In 1274CE an attempt to heal the East/west schism was agreed but failed reception within the Orthodox Church. A similar attempt at Florence in 1439CE also failed.
Third major schism - Protestant Reformation
In 1517CE the Protestant revolt and Reformation was led by Martin Luther in Germany and later, by John Calvin in Geneva and King Henry VIII in England in 1534CE.
Luther’s theses were primarily an attack on indulgences, particularly those offered to raise money to pay for the rebuilding of St Peter’s Church in Rome. Soon he added other concerns, notably the papacy, the sacraments, much of Piety and devotional life including religious orders. He emphasised Scripture almost to the exclusion of tradition and church authority, as well as justification by faith almost to the exclusion of good works.
In 1545-1563CE the council of Trent was held. It is sometimes known as the Counter Reformation. The church responded to criticisms following the Protestant revolt. It declared the necessity and complementarity of Scripture and tradition (reaffirmed by Vatican II in 1965CE).
Current and possible schisms
In recent months we have seen the formation of a new Australasian diocese of the Anglican Church, based in Canberra, but not affiliated with the other Australian dioceses. It is a result of the Anglican Synod supporting the blessing of same sex marriages and the new church seeks to recruit those who do not agree with the Synod’s decision.
The Anglican Church is also divided over the ordination of women, although this has not led to a schism. Nevertheless, it provides some experience for the Roman Catholic Church to observe and ponder, given the latter’s teaching on celibacy of priests and emerging campaigns to allow married men and females to be priests. Celibacy only became mandatory in the Roman Catholic Church in the 12th century, primarily in response to competing land inheritance claims between the church and the families of the priests, their wives and children. If the current trend in priestly numbers continues, it seems inevitable that the church will relax its laws, firstly on married men and then on women. The potential for this to cause a schism, with archconservative Catholics breaking away, would seem quite high. The Roman Catholic Church laid the groundwork for reform at Vatican II. Significant cultural reform of the church has proven to take decades if not centuries in the past. New technologies, including the Internet, will place demands on the church to change more quickly. In recent centuries, there has been a seismic shift in the composition of the church with large increases in Africa and Asia. The election of Pope Francis and his determination to reform the Roman Curia is shifting power away from the Italian clique and fuelling tensions within the church, particularly evident in Italy, Germany and the United States.[1]
LESSONS and QUESTIONS
What lessons can be drawn from these events? Furthermore, as previously stated, if these lessons remain unlearned, the mistakes of the past are likely to be repeated. What questions arise for an awakening adult faith seeker?
Teaching authority
A constant theme through history has been the debates about teaching authority. Does authority lie in Papal supremacy as claimed by the Roman Catholic Church or in ecumenical councils as claimed by the Orthodox churches? Should one follow church teachings absolutely or is an informed conscience the final arbiter of behaviour? Can one disagree with one or more of the official teachings of the church and still belong to that church?
Are schisms inevitable?
What is “church”?
Jesus was a devout Jew. He sought to reform Judaism by criticising bad behaviour and emphasising good behaviour, consistent with the will of his Father. He did not provide a set of beliefs that must be adhered to; rather he demonstrated how one should behave. He spoke about the reign of God, which would include everyone, Jews and Gentiles alike. He was always inclusive.
Today the word “church” can be used in different ways. It can describe a building. It can describe an institution with common faith values and beliefs. It can also describe the people of God. Christianity has many different denominational “churches”, but it describes one people of God, namely followers of Jesus the Christ. It is one (small c) catholic Church.
What would Jesus say about the schisms in the church? Who are the people of God? Would Jesus tell us that the reign of God includes everyone, Christians and non-Christians alike?
Understanding God
The Church is a collection of human beings and therefore displays the same characteristics, including being prone to error and weakness. In trying to convey the meaning of Jesus, humans throughout history have written documents, including the Scriptures, with cultural, linguistic, patriarchal and many other biases. To develop an adult appreciation of God, however inadequate that will always be, it is necessary to try and appreciate the biases of the writers.
Unity with Diversity
Psychology in the 20th and 21st centuries has given us an understanding of the stages of human development from egocentric through to cosmic centric. The church used the label heretic and exclusion in the form of excommunication to sanction “wrong beliefs”. This practice is clearly driven by an ethnocentric worldview and a desire to control right thinking and behaviour. Science teaches us that diversity is a fundamental building block of nature and creation. Every human, animal and plant is unique and makes its own special contribution to life on this planet. How should differences of opinion be dealt with now and in the future, using a cosmic worldview? Would a cosmic worldview provide opportunities for ecumenical action and ultimately unity with diversity (not uniformity)?
Lessons for the Individual
The contributing factors to schisms at the macro level apply equally, to a greater or lesser extent, at the micro level of individual relationships. With our families, friends and workmates, we have all experienced situations that have fractured a relationship, perhaps to the extent of complete breakdown. It is worth reflecting on whether one or more of the contributing factors to schisms are also present in any of our relationships. Have we witnessed doctrinal differences, power, geography, culture, linguistic differences, greed, ethnocentric worldviews, conservative or liberal leanings damage our relationships? Are any of the lessons outlined above applicable to our relationships?
Re-framing
How could the future be different if:
· Christian denominations focused on what unites rather on what divides?
· power and patriarchy gave way to humility and equality?
· we learned to accept that human attempts at understanding and defining God are grossly inadequate?
· we stopped trying to be right and simply tried to be?
· we thought of church as the people of God, Christians and Gentiles alike?
And ultimately, how do the teachings and behaviour of Jesus help us to respond to the signs of the times?[2]
Further reading
For general church history, “New Short History of the Catholic Church” by Norman Tanner, Bloomsbury Continuum, 2011
For more detail about the specific schisms mentioned in this document and schisms more generally, see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schism_in_Christianity .
[1] For a more detailed reading on current church reform, see "The outsider – Pope Francis and his battle to reform the church” by Christopher Lamb, Orbis books, 2020
[2] For a better appreciation of what one author considered to be Jesus’s mission on earth José Pagola’s book, Jesus: An Historical Approximation is worthwhile reading.
October 2022
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