Developments in Theology
- John Scoble
- 2 days ago
- 8 min read
Introduction
For long standing church goers, it is easy to think that theology and doctrine are settled and entrenched. However, since the 1960s, theology has broadened beyond predominantly European and male perspectives, a shift highlighted by American theologian and author Elizabeth Johnson in her book Quest for the Living God: mapping frontiers in the theology of God, 2007.
She notes that new theologies emerged from communities historically marginalised in church and society, interpreting faith through their lived experiences. These approaches emphasise God’s presence in struggles for justice, cultural identity, and the wellbeing of the earth. The result is a more global and contextual understanding of Christian faith.
It is worthwhile delving into a little bit of history to understand her perspective and how developments in theology have unfolded in the past 60 years. Some earlier context is provided, but this is not intended to be comprehensive.
Early Church Theology
In the early Church, various theories about God circulated within geographically isolated communities. In 325, the First Council of Nicaea developed the Nicene Creed to try to overcome theological disagreements (as well as to achieve Roman Emperor Constantine’s political objectives). From that time on and until the 20th century, the desire for uniformity, rather than diversity, inhibited constructive debate, creativity of thought and the development of alternative theologies.
In the fifth century, an ascetic monk called Pelagius promoted a system of doctrines which emphasized human choice in salvation and denied original sin. Pelagius was accused of heresy, and his doctrines were harshly criticized by St Augustine. He was condemned in 418 and, after his death, officially declared a heretic in 431. St Augustine’s teachings of Original Sin and Atonement Theory became Church teaching.
In the 13th century, a series of debates about Atonement theory took place in the universities of France and England. The Dominicans, led by Thomas Aquinas, held the majority view that Jesus’ death was a debt to be paid for human salvation; the Franciscans, led by Bonaventure and Duns Scotus, held the minority view that God’s love was infinite and Jesus’s death was Love’s dramatic portrayal in space and time. Fortunately, the minority view was tolerated, and the Franciscans were not declared heretics.
Theological challenges to the Catholic Church
Challenges to Catholic Church teaching and resulting schisms were not uncommon. After the Council of Chalcedon in 451, the Oriental Orthodox Churches separated from Rome. In 1054, there was a significant schism between the Western and Eastern churches over a range of issues including papal authority and the primacy of Rome or Constantinople. In 1517, the Protestant Reformation began, led by Martin Luther in Germany, John Calvin in Geneva and King Henry VIII in England.
The Catholic Church was under a great deal of pressure in the 1870s. Italy became unified and in 1870, won control of Rome and the papal states. Meanwhile in Germany, liberal policies prompted a testing of authority between church and state. The Church’s authority over the state officially ended in 1880. It was in the context of the testing of church authority that, in 1879, Pope Leo XIII declared the theology of Thomas Aquinas (commonly known as Thomism and developed in the 1300s) the official theology of the Catholic Church. It remains the official theology today.
Vatican II Ushers in Change
After the conclusion of the Second Vatican Council (Vatican II) in 1965, theology moved from being dominated by male clergy trained in philosophy to a much more interdisciplinary and lay field. Surveys of theological faculties conducted in the US and Europe in the late 20th century indicate that during the 20th century the percentage of ordained clergy theologians (priests or ministers) fell from about 90% to about 45%. More women entered the field.
There was also a major shift in the disciplinary backgrounds of theologians. Earlier theologians were typically trained in philosophy, scholastic theology and classical languages (Latin/Greek). Later theologians came from fields such as sociology, psychology, anthropology, ecology, feminist studies and cultural studies.
New Theological Paradigms Emerge
As theology was no longer tightly controlled by the clerical academy, new theological paradigms influenced by science, ecology, and global culture emerged. Elizabeth Johnson outlined some of these emerging theological paradigms in Quest for the Living God.
Liberation theology
Liberation theology emerged in Latin America, especially after the 1968 Medellín conference of Latin American bishops. It interprets the Gospel through the experience of the poor and oppressed. Its key idea is the “preferential option for the poor”. It has continued to influence theology, more recently through Pope Francis and Pope Leo XIV, both of whom have extensive Latin American experience.
Black theology
Black theology developed in the 1960s and 1970s in the United States during the civil rights era. It interprets Christianity through the historical experience of African Americans confronting racism. It emphasises that God stands in solidarity with the oppressed and that the message of Christ challenges systems of racial injustice. Over in South Africa, this also influenced the dismantling of apartheid in 1994, with Anglican Bishop Desmond Tutu playing a prominent role.
Feminist theology
Feminist theology emerged strongly in the 1970s, challenging patriarchal assumptions in church doctrine, language, and structures. This movement critiques male-dominated theology while retrieving neglected female symbols, stories, and experiences in the Christian tradition. It also questions exclusively masculine language for God. Johnson emphasises that feminist theology seeks not simply inclusion, but transformation of theological understanding.
Hispanic/Latino theology
Hispanic/Latino theology took shape in the 1970s and 1980s in the United States. This theology highlights themes such as mestizo (mixed origin) identity, migration, and the dignity of marginalised cultures. It combines insights from liberation theology with attention to culture, family, and popular religious traditions.
Creation theology
Creation theology gained prominence in the 1980s, particularly through the work of Matthew Fox. It emphasises the goodness and sacredness of the cosmos rather than focusing primarily on sin and redemption. It highlights creativity, blessing, and humanity’s participation in the divine life. This perspective laid the groundwork for later ecological thinking.
Ecological theology
Ecological theology (or eco-theology) emerged strongly from the 1980s onward, responding to growing awareness of the environmental crisis. Ecological theology emphasises that creation is an interconnected community sustained by God. This development expands theology’s concern from human liberation to the flourishing of the entire Earth community.
Since Johnson wrote about these developments in her 2007 book, modern theologians, pioneers and prophets, like Diarmuid O’Murchu, Richard Rohr and Ilia Delio, continue to ask important questions and develop new theological possibilities.
Process theology
Inspired by Teilhard de Chardin and Alfred North Whitehead, Process theology has also emerged. It sees God and the world in a dynamic, evolving relationship. God is not an unmoved, all-controlling being but the source of possibility who lovingly influences creation without coercion. The world, in turn, affects God, who continually takes its experiences into the divine life. Salvation is understood as the growth of harmony, beauty, and relational wholeness rather than rescue from guilt. The future is not yet fully determined. God, humanity and all of creation are becoming.
Theology must keep adapting
From my perspective, this history demonstrates that theology is dynamic, not static. It should adapt and respond to the signs of the times. It needs to be culturally relevant and respond to the needs of humanity and this fragile planet.
Imagine if you can, the white male-dominated Eurocentric world of the Church during the life of Thomas Aquinas. Now consider the huge strides made by humanity in science, industrialisation and information technology, along with the challenges presented by globalisation, rampant capitalism, belligerent nationalism and the artificial intelligence revolution. Can Thomism adequately inform us today?
Seeking a new theological vision is not just a desirable pastime – it is a critically important responsibility of every person who is seeking their own spiritual growth and development.
FAQs Developments in Theology
How did Vatican II influence scripture study?
The Second Vatican Council transformed Catholic scripture study by moving it away from a largely clerical, defensive discipline. It encouraged all the faithful to read the Bible, while affirming that scripture should be studied using historical-critical methods alongside theological interpretation. This marked a shift toward engaging the historical contexts of biblical texts, rather than relying primarily on scholastic frameworks. As a result, scripture became foundational in theology, preaching, and lay spirituality, fostering a more dynamic and participatory biblical culture within Catholicism.
How should Christians read the bible in the light of modern culture and ethics?
The bible should not be read literally. Biblical authors used many different literary methods, such as midrash, metaphor and allegory, to convey meaning rather than history. Christians should interpret the meaning of the bible through its central themes, with an eye to truth, compassion, morality and social justice.
How can faith in God be reasonable in a scientific and technically advanced age ?
Science describes how the world works. Christian faith addresses why it exists, what it means and how we should live. Science and faith are not in conflict. They are two sides of the same coin.
How has liberation theology influenced the world?
Liberation theology has reshaped Christian thought and activism worldwide by insisting on a preferential option for the poor and reading the Bible from the perspective of oppressed communities. Its methods and themes—structural critique of injustice, solidarity with marginalized groups, and linking faith to political liberation—have influenced diverse movements and theologies, including Black, feminist, queer, and Palestinian liberation theologies.
How has climate change science influenced eco-spirituality?
Insights from modern climate science—especially the scale, urgency, and human causes of global warming—have deeply shaped eco-spirituality by grounding it in empirical reality rather than abstract reverence for nature. Eco-spirituality now integrates scientific awareness with ethical and contemplative practices, encouraging lifestyle change, ecological justice, and a sense of sacred obligation toward the planet in response to the climate crisis.
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About the Author - John Scoble
John's journey began in the heart of a traditional Roman Catholic family in Sydney, where he was raised with steadfast faith and reverence. Now residing in the serene surroundings of St Lucia, Brisbane, alongside his beloved wife, John finds solace and inspiration in the tranquil rhythms of life. With four adult children and a cherished grandchild also calling Brisbane home, John's family is his anchor, providing love, support, and a sense of belonging.
While spirituality has always been a cornerstone of his life, it was three transformative events in 2012, including a sacred pilgrimage to the Holy Lands, that ignited a profound shift in John's spiritual trajectory. Embracing retirement as an opportunity for deeper exploration, John immersed himself in extensive reading and soulful reflection.
Over the course of a decade, this journey of self-discovery has led John to reevaluate and transcend many of his traditional beliefs, embracing instead the timeless wisdom and cosmic perspective inherent in Christianity. Influenced by luminaries such as St. Francis of Assisi, St. Teresa of Avila, and Richard Rohr, John's spiritual evolution has been marked by a deepening resonance with the essential truths of his faith and a profound connection to the divine unfolding within and around him.
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